#TL;DR

This may be the longest blog post I’ve ever written. It’s more like a book. So if you’re really interested in how to think as logically as possible, this is the article for you. If you’re mildly interested, might I suggest a really good video to get you started on your journey?

Beyond that, here’s a table of contents for what is listed below in case you want to jump right to something:

Introduction

If you’re anything like me, I feel like every day, in almost every conversation I have, and everything I read in the news, and things I watch on TV… I’m bombarded with logical fallacies. It makes it almost impossible to get through a day because I have to always constantly be on guard to interpret any information given to me to determine if it’s reasonable, reliable and actionable. I mean, you can’t even trust a doctor!

Unfortunately, my observation seems to be strongly supported by cognitive science, communication research, and media studies. Here’s what we know:

Estimates from Analysts & Educators

• While there is no definitive number, informal estimates from logic instructors, debate coaches, and critical thinking advocates suggest:

The average person may encounter hundreds of logical fallacies per day, especially if they consume social media, news, or opinion-heavy content.

Cognitive Biases Are Constant

• Daniel Kahneman, Nobel Prize–winning psychologist, has shown that cognitive biases (which include many Level 3 fallacies) are hardwired into human thinking. (Book reference.)
• In his work with Amos Tversky, they documented over 100 such biases that routinely shape perception, judgment, and decision-making. Their seminal papers laid the groundwork for what became an expansive field.
• Because these operate subconsciously, people unknowingly commit them all day long in casual conversation, social media, advertising, and even formal reasoning.

Media & Politics Multiply Fallacies

• Studies and books provide empirical evidence of how emotional appeals and logical fallacies are strategically used in political communication to influence public opinion and voter behavior.
• Social media platforms often facilitate the spread of logical fallacies due to their structure, which favors brevity and rapid sharing over nuanced discussion. Common fallacies such as ad hominem attacks, false dichotomies, and straw man arguments are prevalent, especially in political debates.

Real-World Communication is Fallacy-Prone

• Researchers in argumentation theory (e.g., van Eemeren & Grootendorst) argue that everyday informal conversations rarely meet formal logical standards.
• In their pragma-dialectical model, fallacies are framed as violations of rules for reasonable discourse—and they estimate that a large share of everyday arguments contain at least one such violation.

So the point is – we’re not dreaming!!! People really don’t know what the hell they’re talking about all the time!!!

The list of fallacies I’ve compiled below are not actually ALL of the known fallacies and cognitive biases. There is a larger list on Wikipedia, but without easily understandable descriptions or examples. And before we get started, here is a great image created by John Manoogian based on work by Buster Benson. You can buy it as a poster here.

The Big List of Logical Fallacies and Cognitive Bias

I’ve grouped the fallacies into three different Levels. Descriptions are provided below, but in summary, a Level 1 fallacy is the most structurally harmful to an argument. If you’re relying on one of these, you’re doomed from the start. Level 2 and 3 can still cause critical issues with your argument, but it may still be recoverable.

Level 1: Critical Fallacies

These fallacies fundamentally undermine arguments, rendering them logically invalid.

Level 1 Fallacies are the most damaging to an argument. These are structural errors in logic – such as affirming the consequent, or circular reasoning – that render an argument fundamentally invalid.

If an argument is built entirely on a Level 1 fallacy, it cannot be trusted, no matter how persuasive it may sound. The reasoning is broken at its core, so any conclusions drawn from it are unreliable or flat-out wrong.

2. Denying the Antecedent (Faulty Logic from Rejection)

What it means: Saying something isn’t true just because one possible reason isn’t true.
Example: “If it’s sunny, we go swimming. It’s not sunny, so we can’t swim.”
👉 You could still swim at an indoor pool or just go anyway.

3. Fallacy of Four Terms (Too Many Ideas Mixed Together)

What it means: Using four different ideas when a logical argument can only compare three.
Example: “Dogs bark. Trees have bark. So dogs must be trees.”
👉 “Bark” means different things in both sentences. The argument falls apart.

4. Illicit Major (Misusing Big Categories)

What it means: Making a broad claim about a big group (like “mammals”) when you didn’t prove enough.
Example: “All cats are mammals. No dogs are cats. So no dogs are mammals.”
👉 Just because dogs aren’t cats doesn’t mean they aren’t mammals.

5. Illicit Minor (Wrong Focus on the Small Group)

What it means: Making a general claim based on just part of a group.
Example: “All apples are fruit. All apples are tasty. So all fruit is tasty.”
👉 Other fruits might not be tasty just because apples are.

6. Negative Conclusion from Affirmative Premises (Affirming, Then Negating Without Reason)

What it means: Trying to say something negative even though all your statements are positive.
“All musicians play instruments. All drummers are musicians. Therefore, no drummers are singers.”
👉 The conclusion introduces a negative that isn’t supported by anything in the premises.

7. Undistributed Middle (Missing the Connection)

What it means: Saying two things are the same because they share a trait, without proving how they’re connected.
Example: “Cats are animals. Dogs are animals. So cats are dogs.”
👉 Just because both are animals doesn’t mean they’re the same.

8. Modal Fallacy (Mixing Up “Can” and “Must”)

What it means: Confusing something that might happen with something that must happen.
Example: “You can get an A if you study. You got an A, so you must have studied.”
👉 Maybe they guessed well or got help — studying isn’t the only way.

9. Argument from Incredulity (I Can’t Believe It, So It’s Not True)

What it means: Thinking something isn’t real just because it sounds unbelievable.
Example: “I can’t imagine people landing on the moon, so it didn’t happen.”
👉 Just because it’s hard to picture doesn’t mean it didn’t happen.

10. Non Sequitur (It Doesn’t Follow)

What it means: The conclusion doesn’t logically come from what was said.
Example: “I ate carrots today, so I’ll pass my math test.”
👉 Eating carrots has nothing to do with passing a test.

11. Contradiction (Saying Opposite Things)

What it means: Making two claims that can’t both be true.
Example: “I never eat chocolate,” Emma says while eating a chocolate bar.
👉 That’s clearly a contradiction.

12. Circular Reasoning (Going in Circles)

What it means: Using the conclusion as proof for itself.
Example: “The movie is popular because lots of people like it.”
👉 That just restates the same idea in different words.

13. Straw Man Fallacy (Attacking the Wrong Idea)

What it means: Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.
Example: Tom says, “We should eat less candy,” and Mike replies, “Tom wants us to starve!”
👉 That’s not what Tom actually said.

14. False Dichotomy (Either/Or Thinking)

What it means: Pretending there are only two options when there are more.
Example: “Either you love soccer, or you hate all sports.”
👉 You could like other sports — it’s not one or the other.

15. Appeal to Ignorance (No Proof Means It’s True?)

What it means: Saying something must be true just because it hasn’t been proven false.
Example: “Aliens must exist because no one has proven they don’t.”
👉 Lack of proof isn’t proof.

16. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc (After This, So Because of This)

What it means: Thinking one thing caused another just because it happened first.
Example: “I wore new shoes and won the game, so the shoes made me win.”
👉 Winning was probably from practice, not shoes.

17. Slippery Slope (One Thing Leads to Disaster)

What it means: Thinking a small step will cause a huge chain of bad events.
Example: “If you don’t do your homework, you’ll fail, never get a job, and end up homeless!”
👉 That’s an extreme exaggeration.

18. Equivocation (Using the Same Word in Two Ways)

What it means: Switching the meaning of a word mid-argument.
Example: “This feather is light, and what’s light can’t be dark, so feathers can’t be dark.”
👉 “Light” as in weight is not the same as “light” vs. “dark.”

19. Red Herring (Changing the Subject)

What it means: Distracting from the main topic by bringing up something unrelated.
Example: Mom asks about Ben’s grades, and he starts talking about how clean his room is.
👉 That’s avoiding the question.

Level 2: Serious Fallacies

Level 2 Fallacies are still quite damaging but often revolve around manipulation, emotional appeals, or rhetorical missteps rather than direct logical breakdowns.

While they don’t always make an argument invalid in a strict logical sense, they seriously weaken its credibility, and do not contribute to the strength of the argument.

These fallacies can mislead, distract, or distort reasoning, meaning conclusions built on them are likely biased, incomplete, or based on unfair assumptions.

1. Ad Hominem (Personal Attack)

What it means: Attacking the person instead of their argument.
Example: “Don’t listen to Joe’s opinion on movies; he wears ugly shirts!”
👉 Insulting Joe doesn’t address whether his opinion on movies makes sense.

2. Appeal to Authority (Because an Expert Said So)

What it means: Believing something just because a supposed expert said it, even if they’re not an expert in that field.
Example: “This cereal must be healthy because my favorite singer eats it.”
👉 A singer isn’t a nutritionist — their opinion doesn’t prove it’s healthy.

3. Appeal to Popularity (Everyone Believes It)

What it means: Thinking something is true just because a lot of people believe it.
Example: “Everyone thinks this book is good, so it must be.”
👉 Popularity doesn’t guarantee truth or quality.

4. Appeal to Emotion (Feelings Instead of Facts)

What it means: Trying to win an argument by making people feel something, not by using logic.
Example: “Please give me extra points on the test, or my mom will be upset.”
👉 Feeling bad for someone doesn’t make their answer correct.

5. Hasty Generalization (Jumping to Conclusions)

What it means: Making a big claim based on too little evidence.
Example: “I met one rude teacher, so all teachers must be rude.”
👉 One experience doesn’t represent an entire group.

6. Cherry-Picking (Only Showing the Good Stuff)

What it means: Only using facts that support your side and ignoring the rest.
Example: “Pizza is healthy because it has tomatoes.”
👉 Ignoring the cheese, crust, and grease gives a false picture.

7. Tu Quoque (You Do It Too!)

What it means: Responding to criticism by pointing out someone else’s bad behavior instead of answering.
Example: “You shouldn’t say junk food is bad—you eat it too!”
👉 Hypocrisy doesn’t mean the original argument is wrong.

8. Middle Ground Fallacy (Compromise Must Be Right)

What it means: Thinking the answer must be halfway between two opinions.
Example: “Some say vegetables are healthy, some say they’re not. So eating some is probably best.”
👉 The truth isn’t always in the middle.

9. Loaded Question (Tricky Question)

What it means: Asking something that assumes something bad is already true.
Example: “When did you stop cheating at games?”
👉 The question unfairly assumes cheating happened.

10. Appeal to Tradition (Old Means Right)

What it means: Saying something is correct just because it’s always been done that way.
Example: “We’ve always had cake for breakfast on birthdays, so we always should.”
👉 Just because it’s tradition doesn’t mean it’s a good idea.

11. Special Pleading (Rules for You, Not Me)

What it means: Making up excuses so rules apply to everyone except you.
Example: “Everyone should clean up after dinner, except me, because I’m special.”
👉 That’s unfair unless there’s a real reason for the exception.

12. Appeal to Common Belief (Most People Think So)

What it means: Thinking something is true because a lot of people believe it.
Example: “Most people think sharks are evil, so it must be true.”
👉 A belief held by many can still be wrong.

13. Appeal to Common Practice (Everyone Does It)

What it means: Saying something is okay just because lots of people do it.
Example: “Everyone cheats sometimes, so cheating isn’t wrong.”
👉 Bad behavior doesn’t become right just because it’s common.

14. Appeal to Consequences (I Want It to Be True)

What it means: Saying something must be true or false because of what would happen if it were.
Example: “Ghosts must exist because otherwise life would be boring.”
👉 Whether life is boring doesn’t affect what’s real.

15. Appeal to Disgust (Gross Means Wrong)

What it means: Saying something is bad just because it seems gross.
Example: “We shouldn’t eat snails because they’re slimy and gross.”
👉 Being grossed out isn’t a logical reason.

16. Appeal to Flattery (Butter You Up)

What it means: Giving compliments to try to win agreement.
Example: “You’re so smart; surely you’ll agree with me.”
👉 Flattery doesn’t prove the argument is correct.

17. Appeal to Force (Threat Instead of Reason)

What it means: Trying to win an argument using threats.
Example: “If you don’t agree, I’ll never talk to you again.”
👉 Fear isn’t a valid reason to believe something.

18. Appeal to Novelty (Newer Is Better)

What it means: Believing something is better just because it’s new.
Example: “The new video game is better just because it’s newer.”
👉 New doesn’t always mean improved.

19. Appeal to Wealth (Rich Means Right)

What it means: Thinking something is better because it costs more or is owned by rich people.
Example: “That expensive phone must be better than the cheaper one.”
👉 Price doesn’t always reflect quality.

20. Appeal to Poverty (Cheap Means Better)

What it means: Thinking something is better because it’s cheaper or made by someone poor.
Example: “Homemade cookies are better than store-bought ones because they cost less.”
👉 Cheap doesn’t always mean better.

21. Appeal to Nature (Natural Means Good)

What it means: Thinking something is good just because it’s natural.
Example: “Sugar is natural, so it’s good for you.”
👉 Natural things can still be unhealthy or dangerous.

22. Appeal to Personal Incredulity (Too Confusing to Be True)

What it means: Saying something isn’t real because it’s hard to understand.
Example: “I can’t understand calculus, so calculus must be useless.”
👉 Just because something’s difficult doesn’t mean it’s wrong.

23. Appeal to Ridicule (Mocking Instead of Arguing)

What it means: Making fun of an idea instead of responding to it seriously.
Example: “You believe in unicorns? That’s hilarious!”
👉 Laughing at something doesn’t prove it’s false.

24. Appeal to Spite (Holding a Grudge)

What it means: Rejecting something because you’re mad at someone or something.
Example: “Don’t pick Sam for our team because he didn’t invite us last time.”
👉 Personal bitterness isn’t a reason to dismiss someone.

25. Appeal to Motive (Doubting Intentions)

What it means: Ignoring the actual argument by questioning why someone said it.
Example: “She’s only nice to the teacher because she wants good grades.”
👉 Even if someone has a motive, their argument could still be valid.

26. Appeal to the Moon (We Did Bigger Things)

What it means: Saying a task must be easy because we’ve done harder things.
Example: “If humans landed on the moon, surely we can finish this homework tonight.”
👉 Different tasks have different challenges.

27. Appeal to Worse Problems (Bigger Problems Exist)

What it means: Ignoring a problem by pointing to a worse one.
Example: “Why worry about littering when bigger pollution problems exist?”
👉 One issue doesn’t cancel out another.

28. Appeal to Fear (Scaring Instead of Explaining)

What it means: Trying to scare people into agreeing instead of using logic.
Example: “If you don’t vote for me, terrible things will happen.”
👉 Fear doesn’t make an argument valid.

29. Appeal to Guilt (Guilt Trip)

What it means: Making someone feel guilty to get them to agree.
Example: “I stayed up late making your birthday cake, so you have to do me a favor.”
👉 Guilt shouldn’t be used as evidence.

30. Appeal to Heaven (The Universe Wants It)

What it means: Saying something is right because it’s what a higher power or fate wants.
Example: “We must be right, because it’s what the universe wants.”
👉 You can’t use the universe as proof without evidence.

31. Appeal to Closure (Let’s Just End This)

What it means: Pushing a conclusion just to stop arguing.
Example: “Just pick an answer already, so we can stop arguing.”
👉 Wanting to be done doesn’t prove anything is correct.

32. Appeal to the Stone (That’s Just Silly!)

What it means: Dismissing something as ridiculous without explaining why.
Example: “That’s silly!”
👉 You need to give reasons, not just opinions.

33. Appeal to Probability (It Could Happen, So It Will)

What it means: Thinking something will happen just because it could happen.
Example: “There’s a chance I could win the lottery, so I will.”
👉 Possibility doesn’t equal certainty.

34. Appeal to Relevance (That’s Off Topic)

What it means: Bringing up unrelated stuff to distract from the real point.
Example: “You should pick me for class president—I have great hair.”
👉 Good hair has nothing to do with being a good leader.

35. Appeal to Self-Evident Truth (Obviously!)

What it means: Saying something is true because it’s “obvious,” without proof.
Example: “Everyone knows ice cream is delicious; I don’t need proof.”
👉 What seems obvious still needs support.

36. Appeal to Silence (Silence Means Guilt)

What it means: Thinking someone’s silence means they agree or are guilty.
Example: “He never denied stealing the candy, so he must have taken it.”
👉 Silence isn’t the same as proof.

Level 3: Minor Fallacies & Cognitive Biases

Level 3 Fallacies & Cognitive Biases are the most subtle. These usually stem from natural thinking errors or mental shortcuts rather than intentional flaws in argument structure.

They don’t automatically invalidate an argument, but they do introduce hidden distortions that can lead to faulty judgment or unbalanced reasoning. Recognizing and correcting these biases can refine an argument, but their presence alone doesn’t necessarily make a conclusion false – just less reliable without further scrutiny.

1. Confirmation Bias (Only Noticing What You Believe)

What it means: Favoring information that supports what you already believe.
Example: Emma thinks cats are mean. She only notices when cats scratch, ignoring all the friendly cats.
👉 She’s filtering reality to match her beliefs.

2. Anchoring Bias (Stuck on the First Thing You Hear)

What it means: Relying too much on the first piece of information.
Example: Jake sees shoes priced at $100 first, then thinks $80 shoes are cheap, even though $80 might still be expensive.
👉 The first price skews his thinking.

3. Availability Heuristic (What’s Easy to Recall Feels More Likely)

What it means: Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.
Example: Lisa sees news about airplane crashes, so she thinks flying is dangerous, even though it’s very safe.
👉 Rare, but dramatic, events feel common. Especially if they make an emotional impact.

4. Sunk Cost Fallacy (Can’t Quit Now—I’ve Come This Far!)

What it means: Sticking with something just because you’ve already invested in it.
Example: Ben watches a boring movie to the end just because he already spent an hour watching it.
👉 Time spent shouldn’t force a bad decision.

5. Gambler’s Fallacy (Luck Has to Even Out)

What it means: Thinking past random outcomes affect future ones.
Example: Sarah flips three heads in a row and believes tails must be next.
👉 Each flip is still a 50/50 chance. Studying statistics is extremely important!

6. Bandwagon Effect (Everyone’s Doing It)

What it means: Adopting beliefs because others believe them.
Example: Liam starts liking a song just because all his friends like it.
👉 Popularity can influence opinions, even without reason.

7. Halo Effect (One Good Thing Means Everything’s Good)

What it means: Letting one good trait influence how we see someone overall.
Example: Mia thinks Alex must be smart just because Alex is good at sports.
👉 Being good at one thing doesn’t mean being good at everything.

8. Framing Effect (Same Facts, Different Feelings)

What it means: Reacting differently depending on how something is worded.
Example: Tom prefers a snack labeled “90% fat-free” over one labeled “10% fat.”
👉 The phrasing changes perception, not reality.

9. Just-World Fallacy (People Get What They Deserve)

What it means: Believing the world is fair and people always earn what happens to them.
Example: Sam sees someone trip and assumes they were careless.
👉 Bad things can happen even when it’s not someone’s fault.

10. Dunning-Kruger Effect (Thinking You’re Better Than You Are)

What it means: Overestimating your skills when you actually know little.
Example: Mark thinks he’s great at skateboarding after one lesson.
👉 People often don’t know how much they don’t know.

11. Status Quo Bias (Change Feels Risky)

What it means: Preferring things to stay the same, even if change might help.
Example: Julia keeps her old phone because she’s used to it, not because it’s better.
👉 Familiarity feels safer than improvement.

12. Backfire Effect (More Proof, Stronger Belief)

What it means: Believing more strongly in your view when it’s challenged.
Example: Amy sees proof her favorite game isn’t popular, but insists it’s the best.
👉 Some people double down when proven wrong.

13. Illusory Correlation (Seeing Connections That Aren’t There)

What it means: Believing two things are related when they’re not.
Example: Zoe thinks her lucky socks help her team win.
👉 Coincidence doesn’t equal cause.

14. Outcome Bias (Judging by the Result)

What it means: Judging whether a decision was good based only on how it turned out.
Example: Dan thinks a risky shortcut was smart because it worked.
👉 Success doesn’t always mean the decision was good.

15. Optimism Bias (It Won’t Happen to Me)

What it means: Thinking you’re less likely to face bad outcomes than others.
Example: Leo doesn’t wear sunscreen because he believes he won’t get sunburned.
👉 Optimism can ignore real risks.

16. Pessimism Bias (It’ll Definitely Go Wrong)

What it means: Expecting the worst, even when it’s unlikely.
Example: Kate thinks she’ll fail every test, even though she usually passes.
👉 Worry skews her expectations.

17. Selective Perception (Seeing What You Want to See)

What it means: Noticing only what confirms your views.
Example: Noah remembers his team’s wins but forgets their losses.
👉 We filter reality through our beliefs.

18. Self-Serving Bias (Win = Me, Loss = Not Me)

What it means: Taking credit for success and blaming failure on something else.
Example: Ava says she got an “A” because she’s smart, but blames the teacher for her “C.”
👉 It protects ego, not truth.

19. Actor-Observer Bias (Different Rules for Me and You)

What it means: Blaming your actions on situations, but blaming others on personality.
Example: Jack trips and blames the ground, but says others trip because they’re clumsy.
👉 We excuse ourselves but not others.

20. Fundamental Attribution Error (It’s Who They Are, Not What Happened)

What it means: Ignoring the situation and assuming behavior is about character.
Example: Lily sees someone yelling and thinks they’re mean, not stressed.
👉 Context matters more than we think.

21. Hindsight Bias (I Knew It All Along)

What it means: Believing something was predictable after it happens.
Example: Max hears a quiz answer and says, “I knew that!”
👉 It feels obvious in hindsight, even if it wasn’t before.

22. Groupthink (Agree to Keep the Peace)

What it means: Going along with a group to avoid conflict, even if it’s a bad choice.
Example: Emma picks a movie she dislikes because all her friends want it.
👉 Harmony can outweigh smart decisions.

23. Curse of Knowledge (Forgetting What Others Don’t Know)

What it means: Assuming others know what you know.
Example: Mr. Smith explains math too fast, forgetting students are still learning.
👉 Experts often skip steps beginners need.

24. False Consensus Effect (Everyone Thinks Like Me)

What it means: Believing your opinions are more common than they are.
Example: Olivia assumes everyone loves chocolate ice cream because she does.
👉 Personal views aren’t always popular ones.

25. False Uniqueness Effect (I’m the Only One Who…)

What it means: Thinking your good qualities are rare.
Example: Jake believes he’s the only one who helps at home, even though many kids do.
👉 People often underestimate how common their traits are.

26. Survivorship Bias (Seeing Only the Winners)

What it means: Focusing on success stories and ignoring failures.
Example: Alex thinks being a YouTuber is easy because he only sees the famous ones.
👉 You don’t see the thousands who didn’t make it.

27. Authority Bias (Because an Expert Said So)

What it means: Giving too much weight to authority figures.
Example: Hannah believes everything her favorite celebrity says about health.
👉 Fame isn’t the same as expertise.

28. Choice-Supportive Bias (My Choice Must’ve Been Right)

What it means: Thinking your past decisions were better than they really were.
Example: Ryan says his video game is the best just because he picked it.
👉 We defend our choices, even when they’re flawed.

29. Planning Fallacy (It’ll Be Quick—Promise!)

What it means: Underestimating how long tasks will take.
Example: Emily thinks homework will take 20 minutes, but it takes an hour.
👉 People often guess too optimistically.

30. Reactance (Don’t Tell Me What to Do!)

What it means: Doing the opposite of what’s suggested just to keep freedom.
Example: Luke wants to touch the wall just because there’s a “Don’t Touch” sign.
👉 Restrictions trigger rebellion.

31. Negativity Bias (Bad Stuff Sticks More)

What it means: Giving more attention to negative things than positive ones.
Example: Mia remembers one mean comment but forgets lots of compliments.
👉 Negatives hit harder than positives.

32. Pro-Innovation Bias (New Must Be Better)

What it means: Assuming new ideas or tools are always improvements.
Example: Noah buys the newest gadget without checking if it’s actually better.
👉 Innovation isn’t always progress.

33. Blind Spot Bias (I’m Not Biased—You Are)

What it means: Seeing bias in others but not in yourself.
Example: Anna points out her friends’ biases but ignores her own.
👉 We’re often blind to our own blind spots.

34. Clustering Illusion (There’s a Pattern!)

What it means: Thinking random things form meaningful patterns.
Example: Lucas sees three blue cars in a row and thinks something weird is happening.
👉 Randomness can look like a pattern.

35. Belief Bias (If It Fits, It Must Be True)

What it means: Accepting bad arguments just because you agree with the conclusion.
Example: Emma dislikes homework, so she believes any argument against it—even weak ones.
👉 Liking the result doesn’t make the logic valid.

36. Decoy Effect (Trick Choice)

What it means: Being influenced by a third, worse option that makes another choice seem better.
Example: James picks medium popcorn because it seems like a better deal than small, thanks to the high-priced large.
👉 The “bad” option is used to steer decisions.

37. Familiarity Bias (I Know It, So I Like It)

What it means: Preferring what’s familiar over possibly better options.
Example: Olivia always orders the same sandwich because it’s familiar.
👉 Comfort isn’t the same as best.

38. Endowment Effect (Mine Is Worth More)

What it means: Valuing something more just because you own it.
Example: Sophie thinks her teddy bear is more special than others, even if they’re identical.
👉 Ownership changes perceived value.

39. Peak-End Rule (Remembering the Best and Last Part)

What it means: Judging an experience by how it felt at its best and at the end.
Example: Jacob remembers the party as great because the ending was fun, even though the start was boring.
👉 We don’t remember experiences evenly.

40. Zero-Risk Bias (Better to Eliminate One Risk Than Reduce Many)

What it means: Preferring total elimination of one small risk over reducing many bigger ones.
Example: Ben focuses on avoiding one tiny danger instead of reducing overall risk.
👉 Feeling “completely safe” can lead to worse decisions.

Conclusion

You made it all the way through! Let’s face it, you’re not going to remember all of that stuff!!! And even if you did, it would take you a lifetime to practice listening to what people are saying, and spotting the bias or fallacy. But that’s what this is all about!

You DO need to practice this for your entire lifetime! If you don’t you’ll walk around sheepishly believing anything that anyone ever tells you. So bookmark this page if it will help you, or print it out if you need to, but please for the love of whatever god you might want to believe in – make the world more logical so that I can stop going crazy from hearing 100 fallacies a day!!!