I’ve been asked about different knife and blade construction materials and it often involves a discussion about the difference between toughness, hardness, durability and other characteristics inherent in various types of metal the blades are made from. So mostly to help myself out, I’m adding a list of materials here for future reference. If you have any questions, feel free to ask and I’ll do my best.

Since this is a very long list of different steel types, you may want to use this Table of Contents to jump straight to a material you’re wanting the info on.

Table of Contents

Basic Information

Elements That Make Steel

Everyone knows there are different kinds of metal. If I asked you to name some you would easily come up with copper, aluminum, iron, titanium, gold and several more. What is less understood is that steel is not a single metal, unlike all of those I just mentioned. Instead it is an alloy created from mixing a bunch of stuff together. It’s like soup! And just like soup, even if you make it all with chicken broth, whatever you put in it is going to change the final product dramatically.

All steels are made by taking the element Iron (Fe) and blending it together with other elements. And each element added to iron gives it different characteristics. Here’s are 10 common alloying elements found in the blade steels. These cover like 99.9% of all knives you’ll ever come across:

• Carbon (C) – for bladesmiths, this is the single most important element. Adding carbon to iron gives the element the ability to harden into useful tools and blades. At concentrations from .05% – 2.1% Carbon plus Iron make basic steel.
• Manganese (Mn) -Increases hardenability (deeper, more forgiving quench) and helps tie up sulfur as MnS to reduce hot-short issues.
• Silicon (Si) – Commonly used as a deoxidizer; also strengthens the matrix and is a key contributor to “springy” behavior in some steels.
• Phosporus (P) – Can increase strength and improve machinability in small amounts, but tends to reduce toughness (embrittlement risk), so blades generally keep it low.
• Sulfur (S) – Improves machinability (free-machining effect), but usually hurts toughness and hot-workability, so blade steels typically keep it low unless machinability is the priority.
• Chromium (Ch) – Increases hardenability and wear resistance; at high enough levels it also drives stainless behavior by improving corrosion resistance.
• Nickel (Ni) – Boosts toughness (impact resistance) and can improve corrosion resistance, which is why it shows up in some “tough first” blade alloys.
• Molybdenum (Mo) – Improves hardenability and helps resist softening at tempering temperatures; also contributes to pitting resistance in stainless families.
• Vanadium (V) – Strong carbide former that improves wear resistance and helps refine grain size (often improving toughness at a given hardness).
• Cobalt (Co) -Primarily a “hot hardness” booster (helps steels hold hardness at elevated temperatures) and can intensify the effect of other alloying elements in complex steels.

States of Steel

In the same way water can exist as ice, liquid, or vapor, steel can exist in different internal structures depending on temperature and how fast you heat or cool it. A few structures bladesmiths care about most are:

• Austenite (γ iron): The high-temperature structure you create before hardening. When steel is hot enough, its crystal structure changes and carbon becomes much more mobile, which is why this is the phase where heat treatment starts.
• Cementite (Fe₃C): Iron carbide. It is very hard and very brittle, and it can show up as part of normal microstructures (like pearlite) or as larger carbides if your process encourages them. In blades, excess or poorly distributed cementite can hurt toughness.
• Martensite: The “quenched” structure. If you take properly austenitized steel and cool it fast enough, carbon gets trapped and the structure shears into a very hard form. That hardness is why martensite is the backbone of most knife heat treats, but it is also why freshly quenched blades are brittle.
• Tempered Martensite: What you actually want in a working knife. Tempering is controlled reheating that reduces brittleness and tunes the final balance of hardness, toughness, and edge stability.

These states are all part of the process when creating a knife. Before forging the steel is annealed to soften it up which increases the grain size. Grain size is mostly set by your austenitizing choices (temperature and time) and by any normalizing or thermal cycling you do before the final quench. Quenching changes phase, not grain size.

These structures show up in every blade’s journey, but the “grain size” needs to be tweaked before it’s all done:

• Annealing is mainly about softening and improving workability by slow cooling from an austenitizing temperature, but it doesn’t inherently “increase grain size” unless you overheat or hold too long at high temperature.
• Grain refinement is more directly associated with normalizing and thermal cycling, which are commonly used after forging to tighten and equalize grain that may have grown during high-heat work.
• Quenching doesn’t shrink grains. It mostly “locks in” the structure formed from your austenite grain and converts it to martensite if the cooling rate is high enough.

The Difference Heat Treatment Makes

To demonstrate the importance of proper heat treatment of blade steels, we can examine the figure below. It shows etched micrographs (20 µm scale) illustrating how heat treatment can produce anything from coarse grains (a) to refined, uniform grains (b, c, e, f).

Because grain boundaries are where cracks like to start and grow, grain refinement is one of the most reliable ways to improve toughness while maintaining strength. What you are mainly seeing below is:

• In general, coarser grains correlate with lower toughness and less stable edges, while finer grains tend to improve toughness and make the steel behave more “evenly” in both heat treat response and sharpening feel.
• Grain boundaries (the dark network outlining polygon shapes).
• Changes in grain size and phase distribution caused by different thermal histories (annealed, normalized, quenched, tempered, or variants of those).

Why it matters for blades

• Finer grain size generally improves toughness and resistance to crack initiation, and it also tends to raise strength (this is the practical bladesmith takeaway).
• Austenite grain size is largely set during the austenitizing step (temperature and time drive grain growth), and that prior grain size then influences the structures you get after quenching and tempering.

In a nutshell, just because a blade is made from the type of steel you prefer doesn’t mean it will outperform a lesser material grade if the heat treatment isn’t conducted perfectly.

High Carbon Steels

1060

A simple mid-carbon steel picked for toughness, shock resistance, and easy sharpening, not long edge retention. It’s common in larger blades where durability matters more than staying razor sharp.

• Carbon (C): 0.57–0.65%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.60–0.90%

1075

A classic “working blade” steel with a strong hardening response while staying tougher and more forgiving than higher-carbon simple steels. It’s a solid choice when you want reliable performance without fuss.

• Carbon (C): 0.70–0.80%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.40–0.70%

1084

Popular with bladesmiths because it’s generally forgiving and hardens well with straightforward heat treatment. It can take a keen edge, but it still trades corrosion resistance and wear resistance for simplicity.

• Carbon (C): 0.80–0.93%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.60–0.90%

1095

A simple high-carbon steel that can reach very high hardness and take a very crisp edge. The tradeoffs are low corrosion resistance and a smaller toughness margin than lower-carbon steels, especially if pushed hard on hardness.

• Carbon (C): 0.90–1.03%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.30–0.50%

1566

A high-carbon steel with higher manganese than many simple 10xx steels, which increases hardenability and makes through-hardening easier in thicker sections. It’s often chosen when you want “simple steel” behavior with a little more process margin.

• Carbon (C): 0.60–0.71%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.85–1.15%

65Mn

A widely used manganese spring-steel family (common in Chinese supply chains). When heat treated well it tends to produce a durable, resilient blade, especially in longer blades, but it’s still non-stainless and not a wear-resistance monster.

• Carbon (C): 0.62–0.70%
• Silicon (Si): 0.17–0.37%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.90–1.20%

T10

Often described as a Chinese high-carbon tool steel used in the “1095-ish” role. It’s used where high hardness and crisp edges are desired, with the usual high-carbon downsides: low corrosion resistance and less forgiveness under abuse than tougher alloys.

• Carbon (C): 0.95–1.04%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.20–0.40%
• Silicon (Si): 0.15–0.35%

Alloy and Bearing Steels

5160

A chromium spring steel best known for toughness and resilience. It’s common in hard-use knives and longer blades where shock loading and flex resistance matter more than maximum wear resistance.

• Carbon (C): 0.56–0.64%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.75–1.00%
• Silicon (Si): 0.15–0.35%
• Chromium (Cr): 0.70–0.90%

52100

A bearing steel that can produce an excellent balance of hardness, toughness, and wear resistance when heat treated well. It’s capable of outstanding blades, but it rewards controlled heat treat more than “easy” steels do.

• Carbon (C): 0.98–1.10%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.25–0.45%
• Silicon (Si): 0.15–0.35%
• Chromium (Cr): 1.30–1.60%

L6

A tough, nickel-bearing tool steel known for high impact toughness. It’s sometimes chosen for swords and hard-use blades, but results depend heavily on heat treat quality and on what your supplier is actually selling as “L6.”

• Carbon (C): 0.70%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.50%
• Silicon (Si): 0.25%
• Chromium (Cr): 0.80%
• Nickel (Ni): 1.50%
• Molybdenum (Mo): 0.25%
• Vanadium (V): 0.10%

Semi-Stainless Tool Steels

D2

A high-carbon, high-chromium tool steel built for wear resistance. It’s more stain resistant than simple carbon steels, but it’s not “forget about rust” stainless, and it’s typically less tough than many modern PM stainless steels at similar hardness.

• Carbon (C): 1.40–1.60%
• Chromium (Cr): 11.00–13.00%
• Molybdenum (Mo): 0.70–1.20%
• Vanadium (V): 0.70–1.10%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.00–0.60%
• Silicon (Si): 0.00–0.60%

Stainless Steels

12C27

AEB-L’s close neighbor in the “fine carbide, great sharpness” family. It’s commonly used where a clean, keen edge and good corrosion resistance are priorities, not where maximum edge retention is the goal.

• Carbon (C): 0.60%
• Chromium (Cr): 13.5%
• Silicon (Si): 0.40%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.40%

14C28N

A stainless cutlery steel designed with nitrogen addition to support corrosion resistance and edge stability. It’s popular because it sharpens cleanly and performs well for the cost, especially in production knives.

• Carbon (C): 0.62%
• Chromium (Cr): 14.0%
• Nitrogen (N): 0.11%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.60%
• Silicon (Si): 0.20%

440C

A classic, widely used martensitic stainless that’s been a baseline reference point for decades. It’s popular because it’s stainless and inexpensive in large-scale production, but compared to many modern steels it’s a compromise: decent wear resistance, limited toughness, and performance that’s very heat treat dependent.

• Carbon (C): 0.95–1.20%
• Chromium (Cr): 16.0–18.0%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.00–1.00%
• Silicon (Si): 0.00–1.00%
• Molybdenum (Mo): 0.00–0.75%

420HC

A mass-production stainless family used for affordable, corrosion-resistant blades. The important reality is that “420HC” is often used as a knife-world category label, and chemistry can vary by producer, so there is no single universal, authoritative range you can quote without tying it to a specific mill or brand spec.

• Composition: vendor-specific, request the supplier’s MTR for verified ranges

AUS-8

A widely used mid-range stainless that sharpens easily and is tough enough for everyday use. It generally gives up wear resistance and long edge holding compared to higher-alloy and PM stainless steels.

• Carbon (C): 0.70–0.75%
• Chromium (Cr): 13.00–14.50%
• Molybdenum (Mo): 0.10–0.30%
• Vanadium (V): 0.10–0.26%
• Nickel (Ni): 0.49%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.50%
• Silicon (Si): 1.00%
• Sulfur (S): 0.00–0.03%
• Phosphorus (P): 0.00–0.04%

LC200N

LC200N is a high-nitrogen stainless that’s famous for corrosion resistance in real-world wet and salty environments, where many “normal” stainless knife steels still pit or stain. The trade is that it’s not a max-wear, max-edge-retention steel compared to high-vanadium PM options, so it tends to shine most when corrosion resistance is the priority and you still want a properly hard, tough blade.

• Carbon (C): 0.30%
• Chromium (Cr): 15.0%
• Molybdenum (Mo): 1.0%
• Nitrogen (N): 0.00–0.50% (max 0.50%)
• Manganese (Mn): 0.00–1.00% (max 1.00%)
• Nickel (Ni): 0.00–0.50% (max 0.50%)

N690 (often written N690Co)

A cobalt-alloyed stainless steel known for solid edge holding in a conventional (non-powder) stainless and generally consistent production results. It’s a dependable “working stainless,” but it’s not a top-tier PM wear-resistance steel.

• Carbon (C): 1.07%
• Chromium (Cr): 17.3%
• Molybdenum (Mo): 1.10%
• Vanadium (V): 0.10%
• Cobalt (Co): 1.50%

VG-10

VG-10 (V Gold 10) is a Japanese cutlery stainless designed for high hardness and good corrosion resistance, with cobalt added as part of the recipe. In practice, it became famous through Japanese kitchen knives, and its reputation varies widely depending on heat treat and maker.

Also, “real Japanese VG-10” claims outside Japan are worth skepticism unless a brand can credibly trace supply, because some supply chains use “VG-10” loosely as a marketing label.

• Carbon (C): 0.95–1.05%
• Chromium (Cr): 14.50–15.50%
• Cobalt (Co): 1.30–1.50%
• Molybdenum (Mo): 0.90–1.20%
• Vanadium (V): 0.10–0.30%
• Manganese (Mn): approximately 0.50%
• Phosphorus (P): approximately 0.03% (impurity, kept low to reduce brittleness)

Powder Metallurgy Stainless Steels

CPM 154

A PM stainless aimed at a more uniform carbide distribution and generally improved grindability and toughness versus conventional processing, while keeping strong corrosion resistance for a “working stainless.”

• Carbon (C): 1.05%
• Chromium (Cr): 14.0%
• Molybdenum (Mo): 4.0%
• Manganese (Mn): 0.00–0.50%
• Silicon (Si): 0.00–0.50%

CPM CRU-Wear

CPM CRU-Wear is a PM tool steel built as a practical upgrade path from A2 and D2: better toughness than D2, strong wear resistance, and high attainable hardness with tempering behavior that plays nicer with certain surface treatments than D2. It’s not stainless, so it can rust, but in the real knife world it’s often described as relatively manageable compared to many simple carbon steels.

• Carbon (C): about 1.15% (typical)
• Chromium (Cr): about 7.5% (typical)
• Tungsten (W): about 1.0% (typical)
• Molybdenum (Mo): about 1.6% (typical)
• Vanadium (V): about 2.4% (typical)

CPM S30V

A PM stainless designed around vanadium carbide formation for strong wear resistance and edge retention. It became a long-running “default premium” production knife steel because it performs well across many use cases when heat treated competently.

• Carbon (C): 1.45%
• Chromium (Cr): 14.00%
• Molybdenum (Mo): 2.00%
• Vanadium (V): 4.00%